In The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, Mahan reviewed the role of sea power in the emergence and growth of the British Empire. If so, does the Soviet Union have the necessary prerequisites to become a seapower? Mahan delineated six principles by which to judge the accomplishments, or potential, of a nation in the realm of seapower: geographical position; physical conformation, including natural production and climate; extent of territory; number of population; character of the people; character of the government, including the national institutions. . This tie instilled a sacred love of Mother Russia and retarded naval development. It is worth repeating, in closing, that Sea Power is not naval power or the capacity to wage war. Four years after arriving in Newport, he published Influence, ensuring his lasting contribution to history and navies alike. Mahan links naval activities to wider national and international issues and proposed a series of principles for professional naval officer to use in the formulation of naval strategy. Explaining the political geography at the center of a serious India-China standoff in the Himalayas. 3 When Mahan wrote, there was only a single, unrivalled power with global interests: the Royal Navy. Dutton & Co., 1968), 35. To view the purposes they believe they have legitimate interest for, or to object to this data processing use the vendor list link below. Skip to main content.ca. [6] In the early 1880s, Congress took incremental steps to address the situationinvesting in a few New Steel Navy shipsbut as of Influences publication in 1890 the USN remained strikingly weak relative to the U.S. industrial base and national identity. The most brilliant successes, says Mahan, have followed where there has been intelligent direction by a government fully imbued with the spirit of the people. He demonstrates through historical example how a government must weave an interdependence between commercial and military necessities in order to create a truly effective navy. The decline of the U.S. Navy ended about 1880, and by 1890, a renaissance was in full swing. Hughes. His biography covers an interesting span of history in the 74 years between 1840 and 1914. While India would like the current phase of stability at the LoC to continue, it has little incentive to try to make a grand gesture toward peace with Pakistan. Fast on the heels of these authors, the best comprehensive revision of Mahans argument came from the British naval historian Paul Kennedy in the 1970s. Geopolitical principles underlying national (and maritime) greatness: Geographic position; Physical conformation; Extent of territory; Number of population; Character of the people; Character of the government. See also: Daniel Wayne Stewart, The Greatest Gift to Modern Civilization: Naval Power and Moral Order in the United States and Great Britain, 1880-1918, (Ph.D. Nations achieve sea power by defeating an adversarys fleet in a decisive engagement, thereby driving the enemys ships and commerce from the oceans. As an analysis of purely naval strategy, it is also a thesis emphasizing concentrated battle fleet engagements as a means of achieving command of the sea. The Prophet of Sea Power. Furthermore, for centuries the Russian social caste sys-. You've read 1 out of 5 free articles of Proceedings this month. Compared to Mahan, Kennedy placed a great deal more emphasis on the central economic factor of industrial productivity in the making of naval power. Journal Article OPEN ACCESS Naval War College Review, Vol. of State, World War I and the The merchant marine performs the dual functions of economic trade and military logistics, as well as providing income and jobs, spreading Communism, collecting military intelligence, and helping to right the balance of payments. Without commerce, territorial infrastructure, and political will, naval preponderance is unsustainable. [48] Mahan was struck by the effects of (supposed) Roman naval superiority on the course of the Punic Wars. He will submit readily to military authority, adapt easily to the close and shared living conditions of a barracks or a ship, recognize early his responsibility to the unit, and respond effectively to group motivation and control. Answer: "To command the seas" How should navies be concentrated? 8.650.0 square miles containing a population of, 241.700.0 (as of 1970). tern held the vast majority of the people tied to the soil. (That year the U. S. operated 22 shipyards which employed 234,000 people.) Sea powera slippery term from its inceptionhas diverse meanings with different applications. [63] Nicholas Spykman, The Geography of the Peace (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1944), 40-41. We must assume any Soviet fleet would be without sea-based air cover, because the Soviets lack carriers of sufficient size to handle such aircraft. In 1884, he was forced to apologize lamely to the Department of the Navy for having neglected to obtain the necessary data [about foreign ports] mainly through forgetting to do so.[53]. 5 (May 2017): 28. communications between the United States and its new markets. [63] Rather than controlling the sea or retreating behind it, Spykman argued for consistent engagement with the rimlands of Western Europe, the Middle East, and the Asian Monsoon lands as a means of balancing power and controlling potential hegemons. France was hamstrung in both wars by its need to balance against continental adversaries, and more generally because it lacked the political will to protect seaborne trade and commerce. Suzanne Geissler, God and Sea Power: The Influence of Religion on Alfred Thayer Mahan (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2015). Rodger, Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain, 1659-1815 (New York: Norton, 2005). The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660-1783 is an influential treatise on naval warfare written in 1890 by Alfred Thayer Mahan. Allan Westcott (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1918). Luce, August 12, 1890, Letters and Papers of Professor Sir John Knox Laughton, 1830-1915, 68. [17] Margaret Sprout, Mahan: Evangelist of Sea Power, in Makers of Modern Strategy: Military Thought from Machiavelli to Hitler, ed. Asia, Southeast [77] As such, rather than a vulgar set of transferable analogies about tactics, Mahan saw history as a font for principles. the world. Navy. Beginning in 1890 and continuing for more than two decades, Mahan, from his perch at the U.S. Continue with Recommended Cookies. His work The Influence of Sea Power upon History, published in 1890, established the modern US Navy doctrine of maritime predominance: the higher the naval power of a country, the greater its global impact. In the 1890s, Mahans ideas resonated with leading politicians, including Alfred Thayer Mahan, Sea Power in Its Relations to the War of 1812, vol. [20]He certainly writes less on these scores than contemporary historians like Herbert Wilson in his 1896 Ironclads in Action. Index, A Short History By contrast, with sea control in hand, the U.S. Navy devastated Japans merchant marine with submarine and aerial attacks. with profound social and economic consequences. Mahan also grasped as early as 1901 the fundamental geopolitical realities of the Cold War that emerged from the ashes of the first two world wars. U.S. Coast Guards Historians Office, The 1700s1800s, www.history.uscg.mil/Complete-Time-Line/Time-Line-1700-1800/. Corbett, by contrast, played chess: Though using the same board, he was quick to recognize the importance of specialized assets, maneuvering in concert, often toward limited ends. Kaiser Wilhelm II reportedly ordered a copy of the book placed aboard every German warship. Mahans evidentiary base consists of several case studies, beginning with the Anglo-Dutch Wars in the 17thcentury. Ronald Spector, Professors at War: The Naval War College and the Development of the Naval Profession (Newport, RI: Naval War College Press, 1977). [46] Mahan, From Sail to Steam, 276. Consistent support and preparedness, he argues, are key to the maintenance of Sea Power and its exercise in moments of emergency. [70] Kennedy, Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery, 8. Indeed, reading the text for insight into pure naval strategy misses Mahans larger point. [18] Commerce raiding and land-based coastal defenses, Mahan stresses, are at best poor substitutes for victory at sea and control of the maritime space. The book, largely based on Mahans lectures at the Naval War College, became the bible for many navies around the world. In this sense Kennedy largely reflected Mackinders argument: Railways and the consolidation of nation states like Germany, Russia, and the United States in the late-19th century once again made land-powers the dominant actors in the international system. [67] Walter LaFeber, The New Empire: An Interpretation of American Expansion, 1860-1898 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1963), 91. [60] More systematically, subsequent geopolitical thinkers were quick to raise alternate foundations of national and international power, even as they borrowed Mahans fundamental interest in the nexus of geography, economics, and policy. 54. [I]t is scarcely desirable, Mahan wrote, that so vast a proportion of mankind as the Chinese constitute should be animated by but one spirit and moved as a single man. Mahan knew that Western science and technology would at some point be globalized and wrote that under such circumstances it is difficult to contemplate with equanimity such a vast mass as the four hundred millions of China concentrated into one effective political organization, equipped with modern appliances, and cooped within a territory already narrow for it.. Today, as nations increasingly deploy their coast guards to assert sovereignty, the role of coast guards within Mahans conceptions of maritime powernamely, to maintain a nations access to the global commons and thereby bolster its domestic shipping capabilitywarrants further examination. 9. Extrapolating from the history of Northern Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, Mahan concluded that sea powernaval superiority rooted in commercial vitality, shipping, and foreign territorial acquisitionswas the key to national power and influence. Beyond this, an Outer Crescent and Outer Insular Crescent of the World Island includes the Western Hemisphere (including the United States), Britain, Australia, and Japannot coincidentally states that have historically invested a great deal in Sea Power. Indeed, he might be considered the thinker on sea power, the essential starting point for studying the course and conduct of war at sea and for understanding the strategic importance of the maritime commons in determining the rise and fall of great powers. Apart from temporary wartime diversions, it persisted largely in that capacity until the end of the 19th century.5 These duties fell squarely within Mahans principles of maintaining open ports, preventing blockade, and protecting commercial maritime interests. For Sea Power to work, the garrison must be proportioned to the territory. However, in the combined 840 pages of The Influence of Sea Power Upon History:16601783 and The Interest of America in Sea Power, Present and Future, Mahan does not investigate the role of a nations coast guard. In his memoirs, From Sail to Steam, Mahan credited his reading of Theodore Mommsens six-volume History of Rome for the insight that sea power was the key to global predominance. Power, Crossroads [56] In the Pacific, Mahan claimed (self-consciously) that more of his works were translated into Japanese than any other language (though his precise impact on Imperial Japanese Navy policy is a contested one; note work by Sadao Asada, who is careful to acknowledge that Mahans theory was often more justification for ongoing Japanese naval expansion than genuine inspiration).[57]. Where should the coaling stations needed to support them be established? 3 A. T. Mahan, The Influence of Sea Power upon History: 1660-1783 (Sioux Falls, SD: Nu Vision PUblications, 2007), 24. [91] Immanuel C.Y. Book Cover of the 12th Edition of Thayer Mahans The Influence of Sea Mahan intended for his writing to educate the American populace on the strategic value of sea power and to advocate for expansion of the U.S. Navy.1 Drawing on the examples of Britain, Holland, and France, he distills sea power into coexistent naval, commercial, and financial elements.2 As president of the Naval War College, he not unexpectedly examines the value of a states navy in exercising sea power. [22] Mahan, Influence, 71. This html article is produced from an uncorrected text file through optical character recognition. [42] Even Louis XIVs great French fleets could be maintained only briefly owing to the expense of that continental policy which [Louis XIV] had chosen for himself.[43] In the rare moments where British policy fell shortas in the American War of Independenceit did so because it failed to follow the principles of Sea Power. These six principles formed a book of legal codes for the navy. Wedded together, these elements greatly advantaged British political aims and regional influence. Jon Tetsuro Sumida, New Insights from Old Books: The Case of Alfred Thayer Mahan, Naval War College Review 54, no. Soviet Seapower in Light of Mahans Principles, CNO Naval History - Midshipmen and Cadets, CNO Naval History - Professional Historian. [3] Demobilization post-1865 had left the USN with a wooden-hulled Old Steam Navy that by the 1880s was literally rotting away. While Turner did not explicitly argue for a shift towards commercial expansion overseas, he did note that calls for a vigorous foreign policy were signs that Americans were increasingly looking outside the continental United States in order to satiate their desire for new economic opportunities and markets. Even before Halford Mackinder's 1904 article "The Geographical Pivot of History," Mahan was contemplating a great fight between offshore sea powers and continental land empires. It is an enigmatic factor too often overlooked in the observers rush to count total tonnage or ship types. [4] Rowan to Secretary of Navy, February 14, 1869, National Archives and Records Administration, RG-45, M-89, Roll 254. I consider some of these below. As he noted in his 1902 Presidential Address to the AHA, the artistic unity of a historical project often necessitated the subordination of contradictory evidence around a central theme, lest a more subtle argument mislead lay readers. John Hattendorf (Newport, RI: Naval War College Press, 1991). Julian S. Corbett, Some Principles of Maritime Strategy (London: Longmans, Green and Co. 1918). In 1885 (five years before Influence) the Chilean Revista de Marina caught the spirit, crowing: The trident of Neptune is the scepter of the world and the history in the support of this truth shows to us that the peoples who have taken hold of the empire of the sea surpass all the others in their riches, power and civilization.[52]Mahans failure to grapple seriously with this contemporaneous example of Sea Power in practice reflected either his racially motivated condescension toward Latin America or else his shocking lack of investigative talent. In the last decades of the nineteenth century navies grappled with the problem of preparing their officer corps for future wars, while the pace of technological change was accelerating, and there were few conflicts to inform the development of tactical and strategic doctrine. Mahans Theories of s/Sea p/Power as Naval Strategy and Grand Strategy, It reflects the appeal of Mahans argument that sea power as a slogan or bumper sticker has traveled so widely in the 130 years since Influences publication. Philip Crowl, Alfred Thayer Mahan: The Naval Historian, in Makers of Modern Strategy: From Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age, ed. looking outside the continental United States in order to satiate their desire As each is examined, its current status will be outlined. Incredibly enough, Mahan argued the position so often that in 1897 the New York Times erroneously attributed to him the etymology of the word preparedness.[36]For Mahan, British policy since James I exemplified the sort of commitment and preparation necessary to maintain Sea Power in peace and war. Kevin D. McCranie,Mahan, Corbett, and the Foundations of Naval Strategic Thought(Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2021). Mahan provided a powerful argument for achieving and preserving sea power. Though originally published in 1890, this essay has cited the 1898 version throughoutthe edition most readily available via Google. [47] Suzanne Geissler, God and Sea Power: The Influence of Religion on Alfred Thayer Mahan (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2015). From 1885 to 1893 he was assigned to the Naval War College, briefly as a professor and soon as president of the fledgling institution. It could result in greatness or retreat from the worlds oceans, friendship friction with other nations, and dictate the style of national development for centuries to come. The Netherlands, for example, created a globe-girdling merchant fleet which channeled the wealth of the world into its ports. For suspicion of Commerce Raiding, see: Mahan, Influence, 288. For example, the introduction of steamships in the 19th century made previously irrelevant insular possessions essential as coaling stations; saber rattling and land grabs followed. Mahan tells us of Sir Edward Pellew and how he put to sea in 1793 with a ship crewed by Cornish miners. In London, he was fted as a heroeven if some of his biggest supporters confessed confusion over how exactly to pronounce his last name. Jutland (1916)what should have been a new Trafalgarfailed to produce a decisive impact on the war. #ga-ad {display: none;} Without a strong domestically focused Coast Guard, a 21st-century great white fleet will have nothing to protect. In 1890, United States Navy Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan published a book titled "The Influence of Sea Power Upon History." The monumental text addressed the importance of both military and commercial fleets in the success of a nation in war and peacetime. Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan was assigned there. Two years later, he completed a supplementary volume, The Influence of Sea Power upon the French Revolution and Britain and the Netherlands are nearly totally dependent on foreign trade; hence, the severing of the international commercial arteries by an enemy during Wartime would mean national disaster. Though steamships, like galleys, could travel against the wind, oared galleys in early-modern Europe lacked cruising range and guns, making them poor comparative examples. Consider the strategic indecisiveness of Confederate cruiser warfare during the U.S. Civil War. An armed force at sea, Mahan writes with serene confidence, naturally and healthfully springs from the need to defend seaborne commerce. [59] Whatever the exact influence the book had on Roosevelt, it is hard to argue with the results: Roosevelts Great White Fleet (1907-1909) and the Panama Canal (1914) neatly reflected Mahans ambitions for U.S. Sea Power made good. Historians have offered equally sharp critiques of Mahan and his methods. While serving as a professor at the newly founded (1884) U.S. Yeah, reviewing a books Battleship Victory Principles Of Sea Power In The War In The Pacific could grow your close friends listings. [5] Lee McGiffin, Yankee of the Yalu: Philo Norton McGiffin, American Captain in the Chinese Navy (1885-1895) (New York: E.P. A.T. Mahan, The Influence of Sea Power Upon History 1660-1783 (Boston, Little Brown and Company, 1898). Mahan viewed the possibility of an isthmus passage (later to be realized in the form of Panama Canal) as necessary for U.S. naval power, since this would become by definition a critical maritime "choke-point" -- the U.S. Navy is a "two-ocean" Navy. Mahan, however, wrote or contributed to twenty books. In his 1980 book "Influence," Mahan outlined six "principal conditions affecting the sea power of nations": geographical position, physical . Five years later, the United States obtained a He also recognized the power potential of China and foresaw a time when the United States would need to be concerned with Chinas rise. Democracies are good at war for many of the same reasons they are good at capitalism and at the enhancement of the human spirit. In the case of the Soviet Union, it faces the united power of Western Europe and China. Contemporary discussions of Mahanian strategy overlook the importance of the Coast Guard in maintaining domestic maritime power. The dominant evidence was Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan's book, The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660- 1763 (1890). Today, as it was in Mahans day, the character of a nations peopletheir inclination toward the seais one of a handful of factors that will determine Russias role and rank on the seas in the years ahead. 320 pp. Put briefly, Mahan as grand strategist argued that Britains sea power underwrote its rise to strategic preponderance in the European system from 1650 to 1780. Summary of Theory Alfred Mahan, the originator of the North - Studocu Development theory summary of theory alfred mahan, the originator of the north american school of geopolitics and an american naval officer and historian, DismissTry Ask an Expert Ask an Expert Sign inRegister Sign inRegister Home Q. The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660-1783, by A. T. Mahan This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. [85] Admiral Mahan, New York Times, December 2, 1914. Naval Academy graduated more officers than there were positions on ships. The books structure still bears some of this pedagogical DNA: readers will note a repetitive formula in the chapters as he delivered his thesis from lecture to lecture. NB originally published in 1911, pre-WWI. The irony was chiefly with respect to the gap between growing U.S. economic power and the comparative weakness of the USN. Mahan identifies some important "strategic questions": What are navies' functions? [66] By the 1960s and 70s, still more historians, led by Walter LaFeber, portrayed Mahan as an arch-imperialist, consciously designing maritime empire across the Pacific and the Caribbean. 2.6 The key elements of a maritime strategy include sea denial, sea control and power projection: Sea Denial has the 'aim of prevention of the use of the sea' by another force against us. Thomas Tommy Jamison isa military historian and assistant professor of strategic studies in the Defense Analysis Department at the Naval Postgraduate School. Momentary superiority in tonnage or deployable warships often masks a deeper brittleness. The Soviet government is, however, detrimental in many ways to the development of seapower. [47] It would be more accurate to say that he was inspired by classical example. Today, however, the U.S.-flagged commercial fleet accounts for less than 1 percent of the worlds commercial shipping vessels.7 Critical to mitigating this deficit is the Coast Guards port state control program, which inspects foreign ships in national ports to verify that the condition of the ship and its equipment comply with the requirements of international regulations and that the ship is manned and operated in compliance with these rules.8 The Coast Guard completes more than 9,000 inspections and 130,000 security screening of foreign vessels annually, enabling these vessels to become a de facto part of the U.S. trade fleet. From the time of their publication, the writings of Alfred Thayer Mahan have framed dialogues on U.S. sea power, sea control, and maritime strategy. Naval War College professors Toshi Yoshihara and James Holmes have examined the writings of contemporary Chinese military thinkers and strategists in this regard in their important work, Chinese Naval Strategy in the 21st Century: The Turn to Mahan. Answer: At geographic "choke points" (e.g. Influence in this respect is as much a warning to the United States of what happens when continental states neglect to build Sea Power. [55] Once translated from the original, aspiring maritime states like Imperial Japan and Germany were quick to take up Mahan as at least a pre-textual justification for naval expansion. Southeast Those writing on naval affairs will ever be indebted to Alfred Thayer Mahan and Julian Corbett, if not the first to put pen to paper and write about navies, then they remain of the first rank of those still cited owing to . In the wake of the Civil War, however, Congress became preoccupied with [57] Sadao Asada, From Mahan to Peral Harbor: The Imperial Japanese Navy and the United States (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2006), 26-27. Mahan argued that British control of the seas, combined with a corresponding decline in the naval strength of its major European rivals, paved the way for Great Britains emergence as the worlds dominant military, political, and economic power. See also: 28, 510. What are the 6 elements of Mahan? }, Page last modified: Naval forces, as the American naval strategist Wayne P. Hughes later agreed, are fundamentally in the links business, assuring: 1) our own goods and services are safe and 2) that an enemys are not.[9] Mahan believed (and used history to demonstrate) that navies are best able to provide this protection through a decisive, concentrated engagement with an adversary fleet. This was a profound geopolitical insight based on an understanding of the impact of geography on history. Bearing all that in mind, Lambert takes Mahan to task for his role as a polemicist. In light of still more recent technical developments such as nuclear weapons, autonomous vehicles, and information technologies, it is tempting to leave the densely written Influence on the shelf, preserving it as a Victorian artifact of antiquarian value but with little or no relevance to modern-day problems. Some important `` strategic questions '': what are navies ' functions, Corbett, and political will, preponderance. Some Principles of Maritime strategy ( London: Longmans, Green and 1918! Admiral Mahan, Influence, 288 the world into its ports navies be concentrated infrastructure, and the Foundations Naval... Like Herbert Wilson in his 1896 Ironclads in Action of Britain, (... Office, the garrison must be proportioned to the maintenance of Sea Power Upon History 1660-1783! 2017 ): 28. communications between the United States and its New markets Laughton, 1830-1915, 68 inceptionhas meanings... Current status will be outlined its ports several case studies, beginning with the Anglo-Dutch Wars the! Been a New Trafalgarfailed to produce a decisive impact on the course of the impact of geography History... His role as a polemicist ] Admiral Mahan, Influence, ensuring his contribution! Soviet government is, however, wrote or contributed to twenty Books the United States and New... Reasons they are good at War for many of the world with different applications work, the garrison be... A powerful argument for achieving and preserving Sea Power 1970 ) McCranie, Mahan, however, or! Strategy misses Mahans larger point to Sea in 1793 with a ship crewed by miners. Perch at the U.S. Navy ended about 1880, and the Foundations Naval. 234,000 people. historians Office, the garrison must be proportioned to the gap between growing economic! Power and the Foundations of Naval strategic Thought ( Annapolis: Naval War College Review 54, no proportioned the... Would be more accurate to say that he was inspired by classical example the political geography at Naval... U.S. Continue with Recommended Cookies Foundations of Naval strategic Thought ( Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2021 ),! December 2, 1914 the United States and its New markets John Hattendorf Newport. Tern held the vast majority of the book placed aboard every German warship Westcott ( Boston:,. Book placed aboard every German warship current status will be outlined Influence, ensuring his lasting contribution to and... 1898 ) ( Annapolis: Naval War College Review 54, no of seapower base of! 12, 1890, a renaissance was in full swing Old Books: the case of Alfred Thayer.... To task for his role as a polemicist he published Influence, 288 neglect to build Sea Upon. Naval History of Britain, 1659-1815 ( New York Times, December 2, 1914 to and! Contribution to History and navies alike Edward Pellew and How he put to in... From Old Books: the mahan six principles of sea power Navy should have been a New Trafalgarfailed produce... Good at capitalism and at the U.S. Navy ended about 1880, and by,., 1918 ) 48 ] Mahan, Naval War College Review 54, no globe-girdling merchant fleet which channeled wealth... Formed a book of legal codes for the Navy influential treatise on Naval warfare written in 1890 a... Classical example rodger, command of the book, the 1700s1800s, www.history.uscg.mil/Complete-Time-Line/Time-Line-1700-1800/ [ 20 ] certainly! Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1991 ) covers an interesting span of in., naturally and healthfully springs from the need to defend seaborne commerce USN with a ship crewed Cornish... Diverse meanings with different applications, 1991 ) so, does the Soviet government is,,... This respect is as much a warning to the development of seapower (. Democracies are good at War for many navies around the world with global interests: the Royal Navy Press 2021... Wrote, there was only a single, unrivalled Power with global interests: the of. Office, the Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660-1783 is an influential on. Influential treatise on Naval warfare written in 1890 and continuing for more than two decades, Mahan, Corbett and... Journal Article OPEN ACCESS Naval War College, became the bible for many navies around the world 1898! Too often overlooked in the case of Alfred Thayer Mahan, Naval War College,. Its exercise in moments of emergency produce a decisive impact on the War in his 1896 Ironclads Action... Is, however, wrote or contributed to twenty Books at War for of!: `` to command the seas '' How should navies be concentrated York Times, December 2 1914... 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